Is Instant Coffee Bad for You? Discover the Calorie Count!

Is Instant Coffee Bad for You? A Balanced Guide to Health Risks and Benefits

Instant coffee is a dried coffee extract that answers a common question: can a fast, rehydrated cup be part of a healthy routine or is instant coffee bad for you? This guide explains what instant coffee is, how processing methods change its composition, and how those changes influence health-relevant compounds like caffeine, chlorogenic acids and acrylamide. Readers will learn the nutritional profile of instant coffee, evidence on benefits and harms for brain, metabolic and liver outcomes, and practical steps to choose and consume instant coffee responsibly. The article maps production (spray-dried vs freeze-dried), nutrition facts and acrylamide safety, a balanced review of health benefits and risks, a direct comparison with regular brewed coffee, and evidence-based shopping and intake guidance. Current research through October 2025 is referenced to separate myths from findings and provide actionable advice for caffeine-sensitive groups and people monitoring cardiometabolic health.

What Is Instant Coffee and How Is It Made?

Instant coffee is a dehydrated extract of roasted coffee beans that reconstitutes quickly with hot water, delivering familiar coffee compounds in granule or powder form. The process begins with roasting green beans, extracting soluble compounds with hot water, concentrating the extract, and converting that concentrate into stable solids via spray-drying or freeze-drying; this sequence alters aroma, antioxidant retention and potential formation or concentration of some thermal by-products. Because the roast step drives many chemical changes, instant coffee can retain much of coffee’s antioxidant content whilst differing in volatile aroma and sometimes in acrylamide content compared with freshly brewed coffee. Understanding these production steps clarifies why product form, roast degree and processing choices matter for both flavour and health outcomes, which leads into a closer comparison between instant and brewed coffee preparation and composition.

What Defines Instant Coffee Compared to Regular Coffee?

Instant coffee differs from regular coffee in form and preparation: instant is a dried extract rehydrated with hot water, whilst regular coffee is brewed from ground beans and consumed fresh. This manufacturing difference shortens preparation time dramatically, increases shelf-life, and allows standardised serving sizes, but it also concentrates some non-volatile compounds and reduces volatile aroma components compared with freshly brewed coffee. Typical caffeine ranges overlap but vary by formulation and serving size: instant often delivers roughly 30–100 mg per cup depending on scoop size and product concentration. Consumers trade sensory nuance for convenience, so taste preferences and the likelihood of adding sugar or cream influence the overall nutritional impact and guide healthier choices.

How Do Spray-Drying and Freeze-Drying Affect Instant Coffee?

Spray-drying forms powder by atomising coffee extract into hot air, which is fast and cost-efficient but can volatilise aroma and slightly degrade heat-sensitive antioxidants; freeze-drying freezes the extract and removes ice by sublimation, preserving more aroma and bioactives but at greater production cost. Spray-dried products may show altered volatile profiles and somewhat reduced retention of certain polyphenols, whilst freeze-dried instant tends to retain a closer chemical profile to the fresh extract, including more chlorogenic acids and volatile aroma compounds. Because acrylamide forms primarily during roasting rather than during drying, differences in drying methods mostly influence flavour and antioxidant retention rather than acrylamide genesis. Understanding these processing distinctions helps consumers prioritise quality attributes when seeking instant options with better retention of desirable compounds.

What Key Ingredients and Compounds Are Present in Instant Coffee?

Instant coffee contains the core coffee constituents: caffeine, chlorogenic acids (a major antioxidant class), other polyphenols, trace minerals such as potassium and magnesium, and B3 (niacin) formed during roasting and extraction. Ready-mix products or “3-in-1” blends add sugar, milk powders and sometimes palm oil or hydrogenated fats, which substantially change calorie and saturated fat content compared with plain black instant. Acrylamide, a thermal Maillard-reaction by-product, originates in the roast stage and is present at variable levels depending on roast profile and bean chemistry. Recognising these meronyms—caffeine, polyphenols, acrylamide and additives—helps consumers evaluate instant coffee both for acute effects like alertness and for long-term cardiometabolic implications.

What Is the Nutritional Profile of Instant Coffee?

Instant coffee has a low-calorie baseline when consumed black and offers measurable caffeine and antioxidant content, but its nutrition changes dramatically once sugars and creamer are added. A typical plain instant cup often approaches 0–5 kcal, supplies a variable caffeine dose roughly between 30–100 mg per serving, and contributes chlorogenic acids and other polyphenols that provide antioxidant activity. Trace minerals—potassium, magnesium—and niacin derived from roasting exist at low levels and are nutritionally secondary to whole foods, but they complement the antioxidant profile. Overall, instant coffee can deliver meaningful polyphenol exposure when consumed without caloric, sugary additions.

How Much Caffeine Does Instant Coffee Contain?

Instant coffee typically contains about 30–100 mg of caffeine per serving, with variation driven by the product concentration, scoop size and whether a “strong” or “mild” label is used by manufacturers. Compared with brewed coffee, which can range 80–140 mg per comparable cup, many instant servings are at the lower end but overlap substantially; decaffeinated instant reduces caffeine to trace levels. Individuals sensitive to caffeine or pregnant people should measure intake in milligrams: most guidance for healthy adults focuses on total daily caffeine rather than product type, so translating servings into mg helps tailor safe consumption. Monitoring serving size and choosing decaf when necessary reduces risk of sleep disruption and palpitations for vulnerable groups.

What Antioxidants and Nutrients Are Found in Instant Coffee?

Instant coffee contains chlorogenic acids and related polyphenols that contribute to antioxidant capacity and potential metabolic benefits, and some studies show comparable or only modestly lower antioxidant activity in instant versus brewed coffee. These antioxidant compounds act through reducing oxidative stress and modulating inflammatory pathways, which underpins many observed associations with chronic disease risk reduction. Trace minerals—potassium, magnesium—and niacin derived from roasting exist at low levels and are nutritionally secondary to whole foods, but they complement the antioxidant profile. Overall, instant coffee can deliver meaningful polyphenol exposure when consumed without caloric, sugary additions.

How Do Additives Like Sugar and Palm Oil Affect Instant Coffee’s Nutrition?

Additives commonly found in ready-mix instant coffees, such as sugar and palm oil, substantially increase calories and saturated fats, converting a near-zero-calorie beverage into a significant source of energy and potentially harmful fats. Sugar raises glycaemic load and daily caloric intake, undermining any modest metabolic benefits of coffee, whilst palm oil increases saturated fat intake and may worsen cardiometabolic risk if consumed frequently. Reading labels to avoid hydrogenated fats, high sugar content and large serving sizes is crucial for preserving instant coffee’s low-calorie advantage. Choosing single-ingredient instant coffee or low-sugar formulations helps maintain the beverage’s healthful profile.

Nutrient or Component	Typical Range per Plain Cup	Health Relevance
Calories (black)	0–5 kcal	Minimal energy contribution
Caffeine	30–100 mg	Acute alertness; affects sleep/cardiac sensitivity
Chlorogenic acids (antioxidants)	Present; variable	May reduce oxidative stress and improve metabolism
Potassium, magnesium	Trace amounts	Not primary nutrient source
Added sugar	0–30+ g (in mixes)	Increases glycaemic load and calories

Is Acrylamide in Instant Coffee Harmful? Separating Fact from Fiction

Acrylamide is a thermal by-product formed during high-temperature roasting; in coffee, it forms primarily during the roasting stage and therefore is present in the extract used to make instant coffee. Because acrylamide is classified as a probable human carcinogen based on high-dose animal data, authorities monitor and set benchmarks for dietary exposure, but current assessments indicate typical coffee consumption exposures fall well below levels associated with clear human risk in available evidence. Comparing measured acrylamide concentrations across coffee types helps contextualise exposure and informs consumer actions to reduce intake when desired, such as choosing certain roast profiles or moderating daily intake.

What Is Acrylamide and How Does It Form in Instant Coffee?

Acrylamide forms when free reducing sugars react with the amino acid asparagine during high-temperature processes like roasting—a Maillard reaction by-product rather than a product of drying. In coffee, the roast degree and bean composition influence acrylamide formation: lighter roasts can sometimes have higher acrylamide than darker roasts because of reaction kinetics and precursor availability. Freeze-drying or spray-drying do not create acrylamide; rather, they preserve or concentrate what is already present after roasting and extraction. Understanding this mechanism clarifies that selecting roast level and manufacturing transparency can help manage acrylamide exposure without eliminating coffee’s beneficial polyphenols.

How Do Acrylamide Levels in Instant Coffee Compare to Regular Coffee?

Measured acrylamide levels vary by product and roast, with some studies reporting higher mean concentrations in instant coffee than in brewed filter coffee but still within regulatory monitoring ranges established by food safety authorities. When compared on a serving basis, differences exist but typical daily coffee consumption patterns result in exposure estimates that are generally low relative to toxicological reference points; however, cumulative coffee intake matters. Consumers should view acrylamide as one component of overall coffee-related risk and prioritise moderation, variety and processing transparency rather than avoidance of coffee per se. The next section details what health authorities recommend about acrylamide and coffee.

Coffee Type	Measured Acrylamide Range (approx.)
Instant coffee	Moderate; variable by roast and product
Brewed/filter coffee	Lower to moderate

What Do Health Authorities Say About Acrylamide Safety?

Major food safety bodies acknowledge acrylamide’s carcinogenic potential based on animal studies and therefore recommend monitoring and reduction strategies in coffee products, but they also note that typical human dietary exposures are substantially lower than doses that produced cancer in animals. Authorities emphasise practical measures to minimise acrylamide where feasible, such as optimising roasting and processing, whilst also recognising coffee’s long history of consumption and its observed epidemiological associations with some health benefits. The practical public-health message is moderation and varied coffee choices, not alarmist avoidance; this balances acrylamide concerns with coffee’s established contributions to antioxidant intake and epidemiological health findings.

How Can Consumers Reduce Acrylamide Exposure from Instant Coffee?

Ways to reduce acrylamide exposure from coffee include moderation, label-checking, and choosing roasting styles.
Practical consumer steps help balance benefits and theoretical risks.
Varying coffee types and being mindful of overall coffee intake helps lower cumulative exposure.

These actionable measures enable consumers to preserve coffee’s benefits whilst reducing avoidable thermal by-product intake.

What Are the Health Benefits of Drinking Instant Coffee?

Instant coffee delivers many of the same bioactive compounds as brewed coffee—caffeine and antioxidants—which together support acute cognitive performance and are associated in observational studies with reduced risks for several chronic conditions. Caffeine boosts alertness and reaction time through adenosine receptor antagonism, whilst polyphenols such as chlorogenic acids exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that may influence metabolism, liver health and neuroprotection. Epidemiological research through October 2025 links moderate coffee consumption to lower type 2 diabetes incidence and lower all-cause mortality in many cohorts, though observational designs limit causal claims. When consumed without high-calorie additives, instant coffee can therefore contribute beneficially to a healthy dietary pattern and cognitive function.

How Does Instant Coffee Enhance Brain Function and Mental Health?

Instant coffee enhances short-term cognitive performance primarily through caffeine’s antagonism of adenosine receptors, which increases neurotransmitter activity and improves alertness, reaction time and focus. Longer-term cohort studies associate regular moderate coffee intake with lower risk of depression and certain neurodegenerative conditions, potentially mediated by combined effects of caffeine and antioxidant polyphenols on neuroinflammation and neuronal resilience. Individuals must balance these benefits against risks like jitteriness and sleep disruption if intake occurs late in the day. Understanding acute mechanisms and observational associations helps readers weigh cognitive benefits against personal tolerance and sleep hygiene.

Can Instant Coffee Help with Metabolism and Weight Management?

Caffeine transiently increases metabolic rate and fat oxidation, producing a modest short-term effect on energy expenditure; chlorogenic acids may also influence glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity in mechanistic studies. Epidemiological data associate regular coffee consumption with lower obesity prevalence in some populations, but these associations are modest and confounded by lifestyle factors; coffee is an adjunct rather than a primary weight-loss tool. Eliminating caloric add-ins and pairing coffee with healthy diet and exercise preserves any metabolic advantages and prevents compensatory calorie intake from sugary or fatty mixes.

Does Instant Coffee Reduce Risks of Type 2 Diabetes and Heart Disease?

Large observational cohorts show that moderate coffee consumption correlates with a lower incidence of type 2 diabetes and reduced cardiovascular mortality in many analyses, with proposed mechanisms including antioxidant effects, improved insulin sensitivity and anti-inflammatory pathways. These associations hold in analyses that control for confounders, but causal inference requires caution because observational studies cannot entirely exclude residual confounding. For most healthy adults, moderate coffee consumption—plain and without excess sugar or saturated fat—fits within recommended dietary patterns that support cardiometabolic health.

Research indicates that moderate coffee consumption is linked to a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular mortality, with potential benefits extending to liver health and neurodegenerative diseases.

Coffee Consumption and Cardiometabolic Health: A Comprehensive Review

Findings indicate that whilst coffee may cause short-term increases in blood pressure, it does not contribute to long-term hypertension risk. There is limited evidence suggesting that coffee intake might reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Furthermore, coffee consumption is consistently linked with reduced risks of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and chronic kidney disease (CKD), showing dose-response relationships. The relationship between coffee and cardiovascular disease is complex, demonstrating potential stroke prevention benefits but ambiguous effects on coronary heart disease. Moderate coffee consumption, typically ranging from 1 to 5 cups per day, is associated with a reduced risk of heart failure, whilst its impact on atrial fibrillation remains inconclusive. Moreover, coffee consumption is associated with a lower risk of all-cause mortality, following a U-shaped pattern, with the largest risk reduction observed at moderate consumption levels. With the exception of T2D and CKD, MR studies do not robustly support a causal link between coffee consumption and adverse cardiometabolic outcomes. The potential beneficial effects of coffee on cardiometabolic health are consistent across age, sex, geographical regions, and coffee subtypes and are multi-dimensional, involving antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, lipid-modulating, insulin-sensitising, and thermogenic effects. Based on its beneficial effects on cardiometabolic health and fundamental biological processes involved in ageing, moderate coffee consumption is generally considered a healthful choice.

What Are the Benefits of Instant Coffee for Liver Health and Neurodegenerative Diseases?

Amongst the most consistent observational findings is coffee’s protective association with liver outcomes: lower risk of cirrhosis, reduced progression of fatty liver disease and lower liver enzyme levels in many cohorts. Proposed mechanisms include antioxidant effects, reduced inflammation and modulation of metabolic pathways that protect hepatocytes. For neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and possibly Alzheimer’s, caffeine and polyphenols are hypothesised to confer neuroprotective effects via reduced neuroinflammation and preservation of dopaminergic neurons in preclinical studies, supporting observed epidemiological links. Whilst promising, these findings warrant further randomised and mechanistic research to confirm causality.

What Are the Potential Health Risks and Side Effects of Instant Coffee?

Instant coffee’s primary risks derive from caffeine effects, the nutritional impact of added sugars and fats in ready-mix products, and potential interactions or dietary considerations such as oxalate contributions. Excessive caffeine intake can provoke anxiety, palpitations and insomnia in sensitive individuals, whilst frequent consumption of sugar-rich mixes increases cardiometabolic risk. People with specific medical conditions or on interacting medications should consult health professionals about coffee intake. Balancing benefits and risks requires attention to serving size, product composition and individual health status.

How Does Caffeine Sensitivity Affect Anxiety and Sleep?

Caffeine sensitivity varies by genetics, habitual intake, age and concurrent medications, producing symptoms from mild jitteriness to marked anxiety, palpitations and insomnia when intake exceeds tolerance. Timing matters: avoiding caffeine in the late afternoon and evening reduces sleep disruption, and measuring intake in milligrams supports personalised limits. Vulnerable groups—including pregnant people and those with arrhythmias—should aim for lower daily caffeine thresholds consistent with clinical guidance. Practical management includes substituting decaf, reducing servings, and spacing intake earlier in the day to preserve sleep quality.

What Are the Concerns About Additives in Instant Coffee?

Additives in 3-in-1 mixes and flavoured instant coffees—particularly sugar and palm oil–based creamers—transform a low-calorie beverage into a significant source of calories and saturated fat, undermining metabolic and cardiovascular benefits. Regular consumption of such mixes can increase daily caloric load and promote weight gain or adverse lipid profiles over time. Reading labels and favouring single-ingredient instant coffee or low-sugar alternatives reduces these risks and maintains coffee’s positive health associations. Being mindful of add-ins supports using instant coffee as a net-healthful choice.

Are There Dietary Considerations Like Oxalates to Be Aware Of?

Coffee contributes oxalates to the diet, which can be relevant for people with recurrent calcium oxalate kidney stones, but for most individuals coffee is not a primary dietary driver of oxalate burden. Those on oxalate-restricted diets or with recurrent stones should discuss specific intake limits with clinicians and consider beverage alternatives if advised. The broader dietary context—calcium intake, hydration and overall oxalate load—matters more than coffee alone. Consulting healthcare providers allows tailored advice that balances enjoyment and medical risk.

How Does Instant Coffee’s Taste and Quality Impact Consumption?

Perceived lower taste quality of some instant coffees often leads consumers to add sugar, syrups or creamy mixes, which increases calories and undermines health benefits; improving sensory acceptance can therefore be a health intervention. Choosing higher-quality instant options, optimising preparation temperature and using small amounts of healthy add-ins like unsweetened plant milk or cinnamon can enhance flavour without large calorie penalties. Better sensory experiences reduce the incentive for caloric add-ons and support drinking coffee in a way that aligns with health goals.

How Does Instant Coffee Compare to Regular Coffee in Terms of Health?

Instant coffee compares with regular brewed coffee across key dimensions—caffeine content, acrylamide levels, antioxidant retention, convenience and cost—producing trade-offs that influence consumer choice and overall health impact. Whilst antioxidant profiles are broadly comparable and epidemiological benefits hold across coffee types, instant may have different aroma and sometimes higher acrylamide concentrations depending on processing and roast. Convenience and shelf-stability favour instant coffee and can support consistent moderate consumption patterns, but taste-driven additions to improve palatability influence nutrition more than intrinsic differences in bioactives. This balanced comparison guides choices based on priorities: nutrient preservation, convenience or sensory quality.

What Are the Differences in Caffeine, Acrylamide, and Antioxidant Levels?

Caffeine ranges overlap between instant and brewed coffee, with instant often at the lower end per serving but variable by product; acrylamide has been reported at higher average levels in some instant products, though exposure remains within monitored ranges; antioxidant levels such as chlorogenic acids are often comparable or modestly different depending on processing. These biochemical differences translate into limited practical divergence for most consumers; moderate plain consumption yields similar potential benefits across forms. Ultimately, avoiding high-sugar mixes and monitoring serving size matters more than choosing instant versus brewed in isolation.

Attribute	Instant Coffee	Regular Brewed Coffee	Practical Impact
Caffeine per cup	30–100 mg (variable)	80–140 mg (variable)	Measure by mg for sensitivity
Acrylamide	Moderate; product-dependent	Lower in many brewed samples	Monitor roast/process info
Antioxidants (chlorogenic acids)	Present; often comparable	Present; variable by brew	Benefits largely preserved if plain
Convenience	High (shelf-stable)	Lower (needs equipment)	Affects consumption patterns
Cost	Often lower	Variable	Influences accessibility and frequency

How Do Convenience, Cost, and Taste Influence Choice?

Convenience, cost and taste are primary drivers of consumer choice: instant coffee offers rapid preparation, long shelf-life and often lower cost per cup, whilst brewed coffee provides superior flavour complexity for many drinkers. These non-health factors influence how people consume coffee—frequency, serving size and likelihood of adding sugar or creamer—all of which mediate health outcomes more than the coffee format itself. Strategies to make instant coffee a healthier habit include choosing higher-quality instant forms, measuring portions, and selecting low-calorie add-ins that preserve flavour without negating benefits.

How Can You Choose and Consume Instant Coffee Responsibly for Better Health?

Choosing and consuming instant coffee responsibly means prioritising single-ingredient products, monitoring caffeine intake in milligrams, and avoiding sugar- and fat-rich ready-mix formulations; this approach preserves antioxidant benefits whilst minimising cardiometabolic risk. Label reading for ingredient simplicity—coffee extract only—plus transparency about roast or processing helps reduce exposure to unnecessary additives. Recommended intake guidance based on total daily caffeine and practical pairings further supports integrating instant coffee into a healthful lifestyle. These consumer actions translate scientific findings into sensible everyday choices.

What Should You Look for When Selecting Healthier Instant Coffee Brands?

Checklist for selecting healthier instant coffee: Choose single-ingredient instant coffee (coffee only). Avoid added sugar and palm oil in ready-mix products. Prefer freeze-dried or premium processing claims for better aroma retention.

Following these label-reading steps reduces unwanted calories and saturated fat whilst preserving coffee’s beneficial compounds.

What Is the Recommended Daily Intake of Instant Coffee?

General adult guidance often places safe daily caffeine intake in the range of roughly 200–400 mg for most healthy adults, which translates to about 2–4 typical instant servings depending on product concentration; pregnant people and certain sensitive groups are advised to consume less. Translating milligram guidance into servings requires checking product caffeine content or using conservative serving estimates to avoid exceeding recommended totals. Children and adolescents should have substantially lower limits or avoid caffeine depending on clinical guidance. Personalise intake based on symptoms—sleep disturbance or jitteriness warrants reducing servings or switching to decaf.

When Is Decaffeinated Instant Coffee a Better Option?

Decaffeinated instant coffee is preferable when sleep quality is compromised, when caffeine exacerbates anxiety or palpitations, during pregnancy when lower caffeine limits are advised, or for late-afternoon or evening consumption to prevent insomnia. Decaf processed using water or CO2 methods tends to avoid residual solvent concerns and retains many antioxidants, albeit sometimes at slightly altered levels compared with caffeinated versions. Choosing decaf preserves ritual and polyphenol exposure whilst reducing caffeine-related side effects, making it a practical option for those with sensitivity or specific health guidance.

How Can You Pair Instant Coffee with Healthy Additions?

Healthier add-ins can enhance flavour without negating benefits: unsweetened plant milks, a small splash of low-fat milk, cinnamon, or a moderate protein powder can add satiety and taste whilst keeping calories low. Avoid pre-sweetened mixes, sugary syrups and high-saturated-fat creamers on a daily basis; reserve such treats occasionally rather than as the default. Simple preparation techniques—using slightly cooler hot water, stirring thoroughly and adding a dash of spice—improve sensory appeal and decrease the need for caloric additions.

What Do Experts and Latest Research Say About Instant Coffee’s Health Effects?

Current research through October 2025 indicates that moderate coffee consumption, including instant coffee when consumed without caloric additives, is associated with several health benefits in observational cohorts and delivers antioxidants and caffeine that support cognition and metabolic health. Authorities and systematic reviews acknowledge acrylamide as a monitoring target but do not recommend eliminating coffee for most consumers given the balance of evidence. Experts emphasise product quality, moderation, and attention to added ingredients; ongoing research areas include processing effects on bioactive retention and controlled trials testing mechanisms of benefit. This synthesis frames instant coffee as a practical, generally safe beverage within a balanced diet.

What Is the Scientific Consensus on Instant Coffee and Health in 2025?

The scientific consensus as of 2025 holds that instant coffee is not inherently harmful when consumed in moderation and without unhealthy additives; many epidemiological studies show associations with lower risk of type 2 diabetes, some liver conditions and certain neurodegenerative outcomes. Evidence remains mostly observational, so causality is not fully proven, but biochemical plausibility—caffeine and polyphenol effects—supports the associations. Health authorities recommend moderation and monitoring of compounds like acrylamide, whilst clinicians advise personalised guidance for sensitive populations. Consumers benefit from translating population-level signals into sensible personal limits and product choices.

Which Nutritionists and Medical Professionals Provide Insight on Instant Coffee?

Nutritionists and clinicians emphasise moderation, label scrutiny and individualised advice: registered dietitians recommend plain coffee as a low-calorie source of polyphenols, cardiologists note attention to added sugars and saturated fats in mixes, and hepatology researchers highlight consistent liver-protective associations in cohort studies. Practitioners encourage people with specific health conditions to consult their clinician for personalised recommendations. Drawing on these expert perspectives helps consumers apply research findings to personal health contexts rather than relying on broad generalisations.

What Future Research Directions Are Emerging on Instant Coffee Health?

Future research priorities include controlled trials investigating processing impacts on bioactive compound retention and metabolic outcomes, mechanistic studies on acrylamide mitigation and its biological effects at dietary exposures, and longer-term RCTs that assess causality for diabetes, liver and neurodegenerative disease endpoints. Improved product-level transparency and standardised assays for antioxidant and acrylamide content will help translate findings into consumer guidance. Monitoring these research advances will refine recommendations on roast, processing and optimal consumption patterns to maximise benefits whilst minimising risks.